Overview

Historical background

The territory of modern Azerbaijan has a history of migrations, invasions, and different political and cultural influences. Azerbaijan history was much influenced by the Persian Empire before and after the Christian era. Between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries the Turks introduced the Turkish language and culture to the country. In the fifteenth century most of modern Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan became part of the Ottoman Empire. And in the eighteenth century, as the Persian Empire weakened, the Russia Empire began a 200-year domination of the country. In territorial terms and under Russian influence, two important treaties were made in the nineteenth century; in 1813 the Treaty of Gulistan officially divided Azerbaijan into Russian (northern) and Persian (southern) territories, and in 1829 the Treaty of Turkmanchay awarded the region of Nakhichevan to Russia.

At the beginning of the twentieth century the Russian Empire began to crumble. In Azerbaijan radical political organizations started to emerge, and in 1917 Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan formed the independent Transcaucasian Federation. The same year Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the Russian throne and the Bolsheviks took power in Russia. In 1918 the independent states of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia emerged following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. The independent state of Azerbaijan was short-lived (likewise those of Armenia and Georgia), and in 1922 the Red Army invaded the country. Between 1922 and 1936 Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia became a single republic within the Soviet Union: the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. In 1936 the three countries became separate republics within the Soviet Union, and the purges against intellectuals, political opponents, and others in the region were at their peak until 1937. From 1922 to 1991 Azerbaijan, like Georgia and Armenia, underwent a process of Sovietization that included intensive industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, and shifting large parts of the rural workforce to industrial centres. During this period there was extensive development of the education, health, and social welfare systems. Azerbaijan declared its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Like the other newly formed independent states in the Caucasus, during the early years of independence Azerbaijan experienced political, social, and economic problems. But ethnic conflict in the Nagorno-Karabakh region and international disputes, most notably with Armenia over the same region, has dominated the post-independent period. To some extent, the Nagorno-Karabakh issue has affected the process of political reforms and economic advancement.

The Nagorno-Karabakh issue

The roots of the present conflict can be traced to the early twentieth century. After the Russian revolution, Armenia and Azerbaijan fought over Nagorno-Karabakh - a region that both countries have claimed for centuries. In 1919 the Paris Peace Conference granted territorial rights over the region to Azerbaijan. The Soviet Union maintained the Paris Peace agreement regarding Nagorno-Karabakh. In 1924 the Soviet Union created the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic in the area between Armenia and Iran. This republic was separated from the rest of Azerbaijan, as the district that connected it to Azerbaijan (Zangezur) was awarded to Armenia. The same year the Soviet Union also created the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region within Azerbaijan, an enclave whose population was overwhelmingly ethnic Armenian (about 94 per cent at the time, later decreasing to 75 per cent in the late 1980s). These changes meant that Armenians and Azerbaijani communities became separated from their respective ethnic groups and republics.

During the last years of the Soviet Union and extending into the 1990s the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region became an issue of nationalistic self-expression for Armenia and Azerbaijan. While Armenia insisted on self-determination for its fellow-Armenians, Azerbaijan argued historical acceptance of its sovereignty over Nagorno-Karabakh, regardless of the region's ethnic composition. In 1988 anti-Azerbaijani demonstrations broke out in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh, and the Supreme Soviet in Nagorno-Karabakh voted to secede from Soviet Azerbaijan. In November 1989 the Nagorno-Karabakh National Council declared its unification with Soviet Armenia. In 1990 violence between Azerbaijani and Armenian communities broke out in Nagorno-Karabakh, Baku, and Sumgait. Moscow sent troops to Azerbaijan and declared a state of emergency in Nagorno-Karabakh. The Russian army remained in Azerbaijan after 1991, but the collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia to declare it would no longer support Azerbaijani military action in Nagorno-Karabakh. On their part, Armenian forces used this opportunity to increase military action, while Azerbaijan continued to impose a blockade against Armenia.

The fighting that took place from 1992 to 1994 between Armenian and Karabakhi forces and Azerbaijanis cost the lives of thousands of people. By the end of 1993 the Armenian and Karabakhi forces had occupied most of Nagorno-Karabakh, Lachin, and large areas in southwestern Azerbaijan. This led to hundreds of thousands of Azerbaijanis fleeing the advancing forces to other parts of Azerbaijan. That same year the UN Security Council called for the cessation of hostilities, access for international relief efforts, the eventual deployment of a peacekeeping force in the region, and the immediate withdrawal of ethnic Armenian forces from the occupied territories of Azerbaijan. The fighting continued, however, until May 1994, when Russia negotiated a ceasefire. Peace negotiations to resolve the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh started in 1992 under the guardianship of the Minsk Group of the Conference on Security and C-operation in Europe, now Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Since 1994 no large-scale military conflict has taken place, but there have been sporadic violations of the ceasefire. Efforts continue to resolve the conflict.

Since 1992 the UN and most international humanitarian organizations have had no access to the Nagorno-Karabakh region and surrounding territories. As a result, there has been no assessment of the nature and extent of humanitarian and reconstruction needs in those areas. One of the few international humanitarian organizations working inside Nagorno-Karabakh is the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).

Websites:

Library of Congress Country Studies http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?fdr/cstdy:@field(DOCID)+az0007

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) http://www.osce.org/publications/survey/survey 22.htm

UN Security Council Resolutions http://www.state.gov/p/rls/or/13508.htm

Bibliography:

Greene, T. The Forsaken People. Internal Displacement in the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia. Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institutions, 1996.

Politics

The political situation in Azerbaijan following its independence on 30 August 1991 was extremely volatile. There was growing discontent with the government of Albufaz Elchibey (elected in June 1992) due to its inability to manage the economy or deal with the Nagorno-Karabakh issue. In June 1993 an army insurrection took place against Elchibey's government, and he was formally deposed by a national referendum in August 1993. In October Geidar Aliyev was elected to a five-year term as president. Between 1969 and 1981 Aliyev had been the First Secretary of the Azerbaijan Communist Party and he was later a member of the USSR Politburo (until 1987). In 1998 Aliyev was re-elected for a further five years, but the elections were flawed with serious irregularities.

The government of Azerbaijan consists of three branches: the executive branch made up of the president, his apparat, a prime minister, and the Cabinet of Ministers. The legislative branch consists of the 125-member parliament. Members are elected from territorial districts, and 25 are elected from party lists every five years. The judiciary is headed by a constitutional court that is nominally independent.

The Constitution of Azerbaijan approved in 1995 provides the baseline for transforming political life from a one-party state to a multi-party system. The process of democratizing society is manifest, for instance, in the existence of opposition parties and the development of civil society. Improvements, however, have been overshadowed by serious irregularities, such as that which took place during the re-election of Aliyev in 1998. Furthermore, parliamentary elections in 2000 did not meet international standards as free and fair elections.

Websites:

CIA World Factbook 2002 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html

OSCE 2001 http://www.osce.org/odihr/election/az/az efr.html

US Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour http://www.state.gov/g/dri/rls/hrrpt/2001/eur/8225.htm

Culture

Ethnically, Azerbaijan is primarily composed of Azerbaijanis (90 per cent), and culturally and linguistically these are a Turkish people. Other ethnic groups include Dagestani (3.2 per cent), Russian (2.5 per cent), Armenian (2 per cent), and others (2.3 per cent). Azerbaijan has a rich cultural heritage that has been influence by long periods of Persian and Russian domination as well as by its ethnic make-up.

Ethnic minorities

(1988 estimates)

The figures quoted rely on statistical data from the 1989 census and/or estimates. The Azerbaijani government conducted another census in 1999 and more current figures can be obtained from the State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic.

Russian (474,000, but decreasing)

Armenian (200,000, now only in the Nagorno-Karabakh region)

Lezgin (170,000, northeast, near Dagestan)

Talysh (130,000, southeast, Lenkoran region)

Meskhetian Turks (60,000)

Avar (45,000, Zaqatala and Belokany regions)

Tatar (30,000)

Tat (22,000, northeast, near Quba and Baku)

Tsakhur (15,000, north, near Kas)

Georgian (14,000)

Kurd (13,000)

In the final years of the Soviet Union, the outbreak of hostilities and anti-Armenian riots led to the expulsion of many Armenians and the departure of others. An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 Armenians still live in Azerbaijan, mostly in mixed Azerbaijani-Armenian families. Some have changed their nationalities to become Azerbaijani. Armenians have complained of employment discrimination, and harassment in schools and workplaces, as well as the refusal of local government authorities to grant them passports or to pay pensions. Armenian widows have had their permits to live in Baku revoked. Ethnic Russians, Meskhetian Turks displaced from Central Asia, as well as Kurdish displaced persons from the Lachin region have all complained of discrimination.

The government officially recognizes freedom of emigration. Jewish emigration to Israel is unrestricted. Regarding Armenians, the official policy is that ethnic Armenians are free to travel. However, low-level officials seeking bribes have been known to harass Azerbaijani citizens of Armenian origin wishing to emigrate or obtain passports

The most important feature of the ethnic composition of Azerbaijan has been the emigration of a large number of minorities. Around 400,000 Christians (Armenians, Russians, etc.) and Jews have left Azerbaijan since 1988. About 40,000 Jews have left Azerbaijan for Israel. Another trend has been immigration, with the influx of 233,682 refugees. Since 1988, when the conflict over Nagorno Karabakh worsened, 616,546 people have been geographically displaced. It is unlikely that this conflict will generate more of an increase in immigration. What it is more likely to happen is that the emigration of Russians, Jews, Azerbaijanis of Armenian origin, members of other minority groups, and Azerbaijanis in search of work (mostly to Russia) will continue.

There are no restrictions on the participation of minorities in politics as individuals. However, explicitly ethnically or religiously based parties were prohibited from participating in past elections. Members of ethnic minorities such as the Talysh, Lezguis, and Kurds occupy senior government positions.

Websites:

A to Z to Azerbaijan http://www.azerb.com

CIA World Factbook 2002 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html

US Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1999_hrp_report/azerbaij.html

State Statistical Committee of Azerbaijan Republic http://www.azeri.com/goscomstat/

Bibliography:

The World Directory of Minorities, London: Minority Rights Group International, 1977.

Religions

(1995 estimates)

· Muslim 93.4 per cent - the majority of Azerbaijanis are Shia Muslims. Following independence there have been both a Muslim revival and a rise in nationalism

· Russian Orthodox 2.5 per cent

· Armenian Orthodox 2.3 per cent

The Constitution allows people of all faiths to practise their religion without restriction, and the government respects this provision with regard to Shia and Sunni Muslims, Russian Orthodox Christians, and Jews. However, a law regarding foreigners and stateless persons contains language that prohibits religious 'propaganda' by foreigners. This provision was reinforced by presidential decree in 1997. There is no state religion. The law on religion subordinates all Islamic religious organizations to the Azerbaijan-based Spiritual Directorate of the Caucasus Muslims. The Ministry of Justice requires that religious congregations be registered. In 1999 it continued to deny registration to a foreign Christian group (Jehovah's Witnesses), but it did allow it to function during that year.

Non-Orthodox Christian groups have complained credibly of official harassment. Because of anti-Armenian sentiment and the forced departure of most of the Armenian population, Armenian churches remain closed. There is some evidence of strong prejudice against ethnic Azerbaijanis who have converted to Christianity. The Jewish community has freedom to worship and conduct educational activities.

The present Constitution of Azerbaijan, adopted on 12 November 1995, adheres to the protection of human rights and the equality of all its peoples. The 47 articles of the third section of the Constitution provide for the protection and development of ethnic minorities' cultures and languages. There are three other relevant legal acts: the Law on Religious Freedom, the Law on Citizenship, and the Law on Mass Media.

Websites:

A to Z to Azerbaijan http://www.azerb.com

CIA World Factbook 2002 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html

US Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1999_hrp_report/azerbaij.html

Bibliography:

The World Directory of Minorities, London: Minority Rights Group International, 1977.

Geography, society, and economy

Azerbaijan is located in South Caucasus, bordered by Russia to the north, the Caspian Sea to the east, Iran to the south, and Georgia and Armenia to the west. It covers an area of 13,000 square miles, including the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic and Nagorno-Karabakh region. Its terrain is made up of the Great Caucasus Mountains in the north, the Karabakh Upland in the west, and the Abseron Peninsula in the east. Azerbaijan has a dry, subtropical climate with hot summers and mild winters. The country has two main natural hazards: droughts and the threat of flooding by the Caspian Sea in some lowland areas.

Azerbaijan has an economy in transition in which the state continues to play a dominant role. It has considerably energy resources (important oil and natural gas reserves) and significant agronomic potential based on a wide variety of climatic zones. Its third most important product is cotton. At present it has a GDP of US$23.5 billion (2000 estimate). Azerbaijan's economic stabilization programme has brought inflation down from 1,800 per cent in 1994 to 1.8 per cent in 2000. GDP has been increasing for the last five years. The programme to privatize agricultural land and small and medium enterprises is almost complete. Sixty per cent (2000 estimate) of the population still lives below the poverty line, and the unemployment rate is 20 per cent (1999 estimate).

Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important areas in the world for oil exploration and development. There are substantial oil reserves in the Caspian Basin, which Azerbaijan shares with Russia, Kazakstan, and Turkmenistan, but exploration is still in the early stages. The continuing conflict with Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region remains an obstacle to economic progress, as foreign investment is unlikely to increase in the present insecure climate.

The most pressing environmental issues facing Azerbaijan are water and air pollution problems created by the Caspian petroleum and petrochemicals industries; and soil contamination by DDT and toxic defoliants used in cotton production during the Soviet era. Environmental agencies do exist in Azerbaijan, but clean-up and prevention programmes have been hampered by lack of funds. Over-fishing of the Caspian sturgeon stocks is also a serious issue. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) has listed all sturgeon species as threatened.

Excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has caused extensive groundwater pollution, and Azerbaijani scientists have linked this to birth defects and illnesses. Azerbaijanis face difficulties with access to safe water, lack of sanitation, and access to health care facilities. There is little research and development regarding social medicine, and drugs and equipment are in short supply.

The infant mortality rate stands at 83.08 per 1,000 live births (2001 estimate). The average number of children born per woman is 2.24 (2001 estimate). Average life expectancy in 2001 was 62.96 years (58.65 for men and 67.49 for women). Around 28.95 per cent of the population is under 15 years of age.

Azerbaijan as had obligatory eight-year education since 1957. According to Soviet data, 100 percent of males and females (ages nine to forty-nine) were literate in 1970. After independence from the Soviet Union an educational reform programme was introduced to modify the existing system. This included an increase in the use of the Azerbaijani language in schools and religious instruction.

Websites:

CIA World Factbook http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html

Library of Congress Country Studies http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?fdr/cstdy:@field(DOCID)+az0007

Open Society News: Will Oil Funds Benefit the Masses (Or Just the Ruling Classes) http://www.eurasianet.org/osn/Will_Oil_Benefit_the_Masses.html

US Department of State http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1999_hrp_report/azerbaij.html